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GRIFFITH 



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Class 
Book 



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CDPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



WOODWORK FOR 
BEGINNERS 



BY 

IRA SAMUEL GRIFFITH 

Chairman of the Manual Arts Department 
University oj Missouri 




THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 

PEORIA, ILLINOIS 

1916 






Copyright, 1916, By 
Ira Samuel Griffith 



SEP 27 1916 



3CI.A438573 



) PREFACE 

>^ This Book has been written in the hope that it may be of 
- service in those grammar schools where a more extended treat- 
ment of subject-matter, such as that contained in the author's 
Essentials of Woodworking, is not possible of utilization to an 
extent sufficient to warrant its adoption as an individual text. 

The average time presupposed for the accomplishment of 
the subject-matter contained herein, with its efficient application 
in the form of projects or models, is from one to three hours a 
week for a period of two years, or its equivalent. One-third of 
this time may well be devoted to correlated mechanical drawing. 

With the limited time at the student's disposal as presup- 
posed in this text, there is hardly time for any study of related 
informational matter, such as trees and tree growth. Then, 
too, in many schools such subject-matter is efficiently treated in 
the classes in nature study, or should be. 

The teacher desiring an outline of a course in woodwork with 
drawings of possible projects suitable for grammar grades is 
referred to the author's Correlated Courses in Woodwork and 
Mechanical Drawing. 

Assignment of text for study should be by sections, as they 
relate to the shopwork being done, rather than by page sequence. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface 3 

Chapter I. Lumber Terms; Working Draw- 
ings; Estimating Stock . . 7 

I. Lumber terms; 2. Working drawings; 

3. Stock bill. 

Chapter II. Laying-out Tools; Their Uses 13 

4. The rule; 5. Pencil and knife; 6. The try- 
square; 7. The framing square; 8. The bevel; 
9. The marking gage; 10. The dividers. 

Chapter III. Saws; Their Uses ... 19 

II. Hand or crosscut-saw and rip-saw; 12. Saw- 
ing with hand or crosscut-saw and with rip-saw; 

13. The back-saw. 

Chapter IV. Planes; Their Adjustments. 

Face Side; Face Edge . .24 

14. Planes; 15. Adjustments of a standard 
plane; 16. Face-side, face-edge. 

Chapter V. Squaring-up Stock ... 30 

17. Mill-marks; 18. Methods of squaring-up 
stock; 19. Squaring-up mill-planed stock, first 
method; 20. Squaring-up mill-planed stock, 
second method; 21. Squaring-up rough stock; 
22. Planing a chamfer. 
5 



6 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

Chapter VI. Boring Tools; Their Uses. 

Chisels and Chiseling . . 43 

23. Brace or bitstock; 24. The auger-bit; 

25. The drill bit; awls; the gimlet bit; 

26. Countersink bit; screwdriver bit; 27. 
Chisels; 28. Chiseling; 29. The gouge; 30. 
Whetting chisels and plane irons. 

Chapter VII. Additional Tools and Appli- 
ances; Their Uses • • • 53 
31. Sandpaper; 32. Hammer; nailset; S3- Nails; 
nailing; 34. The screwdriver; screws; fastening 
with screws; 35. Glue; clamps; 36. The spoke- 
shave; working curved edges. 

Chapter VIII. Simple Joinery .... 61 

37. Joinery; general directions; 38. Directions 
for making a dado; 39. Cross-lap joint; 40. 
Directions for cross-lap joint. 

Chapter IX. Wood Finishing .... 69 

41. Materials for wood finishing; 42. General 
directions for using brush; 43. Simple finishes 
for close grained woods; 44. Simple finishes for 
coarse grained woods; 45. Painting. 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



CHAPTER I 

Lumber Terms; Working Drawings; 
Estimating Stock 

1. Lumber Terms. — Every boy who has had to cut 
kindling knows that wood 
will split when struck along 
the general direction of its 
growth. The fibers separate 
easily, Fig. 1. ''Grain "is a 
term used to designate the 
direction of the fibers; " along 
the grain" means in the 
general direction of growth. 
"Length" in woodwork has 
reference to that direction in 
which the wood splits easiest; 
that is along the grain. A board might therefore, be wider 
h^-un,^ than it is long. 




Splits Easiest Along 
the Grain 




> 



Fig. 2 will make 

clear the mean- 

-! ings of other terms 



h£^^ 



commonly used. 



Fig. 2. Common Terms Illustrated Fig. 3. Direction of Surface Grain 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



In planing, a surface will sometimes be roughened 
instead of smoothed; this is called working ''against the 
grain." Fig. 3 shows the reason for the roughening; 
the remedy consists in changing the direction of the 
planing, or of the board. 




TOP 


<\2 


Er© 


, 




-1- 




FRONT 





PER5PECTI\/E 

WORKING DRAWING 

Fig, 4. Pictorial vs. Working Drawing of Block 




Fig. 5. Working Drawing of Wood Spool 

2. Working Drawings. — Drawings are, in general, 
of two kinds, pictorial and working. A pictorial draw- 



LUMBER TERMS — WORKING DRAWINGS 9 

ing represents an object as it appears, while a working 
drawing represents the object as it really is, Fig. 4. 
The latter is of the utmost importance to the workman 
for it tells him concisely all about the object,— its size, 
shape, kind of material, etc. 

Fig. 5 shows two views of a common wood spool. 
The front view is the view one would get by looking at 
the object from the front; the side view, the view one 





Fi.£ 



6. Mechanical Draw- 
ing Cage 



Fig. 7. Cage Unfolded 



would get by looking at the side of the object; a top 
view, the view one would get by looking at the top of 
the object, the observer in each case being so far away 
from the object that the views show the real shape of 
the object and not its perspective. The side view will be 
found at the side of the front view and the top view will 
be found directly above the front view. An examina- 
tion of Figs. 6 and 7 should enable one to fix the relation- 
ship of the views in mind. Fig. 6 represents an object 
within a ^'cage" where the views have been drawn upon 
transparent screens. Fig. 7 shows the cage as it opens 
out so as to bring all of the views in one plane, as they 
must be on drawing paper. 



10 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



The various kinds of lines in a working drawing have 
different meanings. The very light lines of indefinite 
length are known as construction, extension, or pro- 
jection lines. They are the first lines drawn. The 
heavy lines represent visible edges or outlines of the 
object. The broken or dotted lines represent hidden 
edges or outlines. Those Hnes having arrow barbs and 
numbers are known as dimension lines, and the barbs 




SECTION AT AB 





\ 




Q 


/UN 




Tf 


vv- 




1^ ( 




1 


li 


? 


^ \ 


1 1 1 


Fi 




? ) 










3r / 






li 








1 1 


V 




' \ 




B 









Fig. 8. Drafting Conventions 



indicate the extreme limit of the measurement while the 
number indicates the amount. Lines through the 
middle of an object dividing it into two equal parts are 
known as center Hnes. 

Fig. 8 shows how nails and screws may be represented. 
This illustration also shows two other conventions, the 
cross-section and the broken view. A cross-section 
represents an object as it would appear if cut, and is 
indicated by a shading, known as cross-hatching, as 
shown. A broken view is used when, for any reason 
it is not advisable or possible to represent the full view. 
Irregular lines indicate the missing part and the dimen- 
sions indicate the true size. 



LUMBER TERMS — WORKING DRAWINGS 11 

Small objects are drawn full size, that is, the object 
and drawing are of the same dimensions. A drawing 
is said to be drawn to scale when its parts are similar in 
proportion to that of the object it represents. There 
are various scales used, such as ^'^ = V (>^ inch = l 
foot); 3" = V, known as a quarter scale; and on very 
small objects we may have such scales as ^'' = V\ etc. 
Whatever the scale used, the figure on the drawing 
represents the size of the object's corresponding part. 




Fig. 9. Drafting Tools 

Working drawings are best made with instruments. 
Fig. 9 shows a set. The T-square is used in making 
horizontal lines, the lines being drawn from left to right. 
The triangles are used in the making of vertical and 
obHque lines, the Unes being drawn from the T-square 
upward. 

3. Stock Bill. — A good workman will prepare from 
his working drawing a stock bill. Fig. 10 is an example 
of a form used by one large company. Teacher and 
pupil are referred to Projects for Beginning Woodwork 
and Mechanical Drawing, sl companion book, pages 
16-21, for a detailed description of how to make and 



12 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



figure simple projects such as are usually made in ele- 
mentary manual training work. 

Example of Form for Bill of Materials 



Ticket 

or 
Catalog 
Number 


No. 

of 

Feet 


No. 

of 

Pieces 


Size 


L'gth 




270 


30 

2 


2x4 
M 


14 




300 


1x6 







Description 



Yellow pine 
and I E . 


,SIS 


5-2" Red 
Shingles. 

No. 2 Y. P. 
ing 


Cedar 
floor- 



Rate 



55 



Price 



Extensions 



20 04 



Fig. 10. Stock Bill Form. 



CHAPTER II 

Laying-out Tools; Their Uses 

4. The Rule. — There are various styles of rules. 
Whatever the style the unit of measurement is the foot 



HINGES 



Fig. 11. Rule 

with its subdivisions into halves, quarters, eighths, and 
in some instances sixteenths. Fig. 11. 

5. Pencil and Knife. — A knife is used to lay out work 
that must be quite accurate, such as joints. Where 





Fig. 12. Thumb-gaging Width 

accuracy is not so important a pencil may be used. 
Pencil lines should be made with a well sharpened lead, 

13 



14 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

however. A good rule to observe in bench woodwork 
is: Use a knife and gage for laying out except where 
a finished surface would be permanently injured. 

Figs. 12 and 13 illustrate two ways of marking a board 
to width roughly, preparatory to rough sawing. Where 




Fig. 13. Marking Width with Straight-edge 

the original edge is fairly straight, thumb-gaging is 
resorted to. Where the edge is not straight two measure- 
ments for width are made, one at each end of that part 
of the board to be removed, and a straight-edge used to 
connect these. Length in either case will be measured 
from the end of the board, leaving enough margin to 

allow for checks at the end 
of the board ; and the try- 
square or framing square 
and pencil are used to 
draw a line straight across 
the board. 

6. The Try-Square.— 
The try-square, Fig. 14, 



'l'|i|'|'l'|M'['l'|'l'|iM| l |i[i 
I Z , 5 4 



BLADE 



BEAM- 



r?» 



Fig. 14. Try-square 



is used for three purposes in general, first, to act as a guide 
in laying out lines across the grain of a piece of stock, 



LAYING-OUT 


TOOLS 








■/ 


i 


. '^,^SttlfM 



15 



Fig. 15. Lining Across the Grain 




Fig. 16. Testing Edge for 
Squareness 



Fig. 17. Testing End for 
Squareness 




Fig. 18. Additional Test of End Fig. 19. Test for Uniformity of 

Width 



16 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



Fig. 15 ; second, to test the edges, Fig. 16, or ends. Figs. 17 
and 18, of a board to see if they make right angles, or are 
square with the faces; third, to test a piece of stock by 
shding the square along it with the eye fixed upon the 



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TONGUE 

graduations at the far edge to see 
whether any change takes place as the 
square is pushed along. Fig. 19. 

7. The Framing Square. — The fram- 
ing square, Fig. 20, will be found useful 
about a shop where the try-square is 
too small. It is of very great value to 
the carpenter in the framing of houses 
and barns, etc. 









r_ -^E 



-BLADE 




THUMB -3CREW 

Fis. 21. Bevel 

8. The Bevel.— The bevel, Fig. 21, 
is nothing more than a try-square with 
a movable blade and a thumb-screw 
which will hold the blade at any desired 



^^ Square^"^^"^ angle with reference to the beam. 



■THUMB -SCREW 



LAYING-OUT TOOLS 17 

9. The Marking Gage. — The marking gage, Fig. 22, 
is used for laying out accurate lines along the grain of 
the wood. 

The spur, or marking point, is to be sharpened like 
a knife point by means 
of a file, the cutting 
edge to act when the 
gage is pushed for- 
ward with the right 
hand. A left handed 
person will have to draw the gage toward him or else 
reverse the cutting edge of the spur. 

As the graduations on a gage stick or beam are not 
reliable, it is safer to set a gage by means of a rule held 




v^ 



3 



HEAD OR BLOCK 

Fig. 22. Marking Gage 




Fig. 23. Setting Marking Gage 

as in Fig. 23. As in all other work, make certain of the 
accuracy of the setting by again measuring with the 
rule after the thumb-screw has been adjusted for the 
first setting. Measure from the gage head to the 
sharpened point of the spur. 



18 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

10. The Dividers. — A good pencil compass will be 
found better for elementary woodwork than the dividers, 
Fig. 24, because they do not scratch the wood. Car- 




Fig. 24. Dividers 

penters, however, find much use for dividers. Some 
dividers are made with one leg removable with an adjust- 
ment such that a pencil may be substituted. Dividers, 
like compasses, are used in describing circles or arcs. 



CHAPTER III 

Saws; Their Uses 

11. Hand or Crosscut-Saw, and Rip-Saw. Saws, as 
determined by their teeth, are of two general classes — 
crosscut and rip. The former class are used for cutting 





Fig. 25. Efifect of Chiseling 
Along the Grain 



Fig. 26. Effect of Chiseling 
Across the Grain 



across the grain, the latter for separating the fibers along 
the grain. 

An examination of Figs. 25 and 26 will indicate the 
necessity for differently shaped teeth for saws cutting 
across and along the grain. The rip-saw has the cutting 
edges of its teeth across the front of the teeth, and is 
in fact nothing more nor less than a lot of little chisels, 

19 



20 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 




Fig. 27. Teeth of Rip-saw 



cutting in rapid succession as the blade is pushed forward, 

Fig. 27. The handsaw or crosscut-saw is Uke the rip-saw 

in all respects except that the cutting edges of the teeth 

must be on the sides 
rather than across the 
front of the teeth, Fig. 28. 
Try the experiment of try- 
ing to cut a kerf across 
the grain by holding the 

chisel as in cutting along the grain, the reason 

for shaping the teeth with the cutting edges on 

the sides of the teeth 

will readily be seen. 
12. Sawing with 

Hand or Crosscut- 
Saw and with Rip- 

Saw. — In using these 

saws, generally the 

board to be sawed 

will be placed upon a 

pair of trestles or 

"sawhorses.'' Place 

the knee upon the 

board and assume a 

position for ripping 

similar to that shown 

in Fig. 29. The in- 





m 

ET1D VIEW (EXAGGERATED) 



EDGE VIEW 
CUTTING EDGE 




Fig. 28. 



SIDE VIEW 

Teeth of Crosscut-saw 



dex finger of the right hand should extend along the 
side of the saw to assist in guiding it; place the thumb 
of the left hand upon the board at the place the cut is to 
be made and the blade of the saw against the thumb 



SAWS; THEIR USES 



21 



lightly. Holding the cutting edge at an angle of about 
60 degrees with reference to the surface of the board, 

begin the sawing with 



^.^ 



Fig. 29. Position for Ripping 



J^ short, light, easy 

mM I strokes, gradually in- 

Ut^ f creasing their length as 

^^^^^^^^Kp f the kerf is formed, un- 

■^^^HB^^ til almost the full 

^^^^ ^m ,^Lg^ -4 length of the saw is 

^B|^^^ .^^IK nL ^^^^* Strive to keep 

the eyes, hand, and 
saw blade in one and 
the same plane. 
Should it become 

necessary to change the direction of the saw because 

of its not following the line 

properly, this can be done 

by gently twisting the 

blade as the sawing pro- 
ceeds in the direction it 

should take. This twisting 

must be done with care or 

the blade will bind and 

kink. When nearing the 

finish of a kerf, shorten 

the length of stroke and 

lighten the weight of the 

saw by holding up on it, 

at the same time taking 

hold of the part being cut off, Fig. 30. 

In cutting a piece from a large board, rip-saw first 







'A 


■M 


\ 


Ij 



Fig. 30. Position for 
Crosscutting 



Final 



22 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



and then crosscut to meet the ripped kerf, thus leaving 
on the main board all but just what is wanted. This 
practice is more economical and is less likely to result in 
a split piece. 



BACK PIECE 



BLADE 




The handsaw 



-^ 

POINT TEETH HEEL 

Fig. 31. Back-saw 

13. The Back-Saw. — The back-saw, Fig. 31, is used 
for both ripping and crosscutting upon fine work. The 
blade is made quite thin and is reinforced by means of 
a back piece. 

or crosscut-saw and the rip-saw 
are used mainly upon coarser work 
such as the cutting out of stock. In 
such a case the penciled fines are 
placed so as to lay out the piece 
somewhat wider and longer than the 
dimensions desired for the finished 
piece. Here the saw is placed so as 
to "straddle" the penciled line. In 
accurate sawing, as with a back-saw. 
Fig. 32. Accurate a knife line is used, being placed at 
Sawing to Line ^^^ ^^^^^ location desired for the 

finished piece. The saw blade is then placed so as to 
bring the kerf entirely upon the waste wood, but with 
no wood left between the kerf and line, Fig. 32. The 
proper starting positions for the back-saw are shown 




SAWS; THEIR USES 23 

in Figs. 33 and 34. Upon a narrow piece the saw may 
be started from one side only, usually the far side. As 
with the other saws, the beginning strokes are short, 




Fk 



33. Starting Position in 
Backsawing 



Fig. 34. Alternate Starting 
Position 



light, easy ones, increasing in length as the sawing pro- 
ceeds. The handle is gradually shifted as the newly 
formed kerf provides a guide for the blade, until the 
back is in a horizontal position. 
In manual training work the 
back-saw is often used for rough 
cutting off of small stock, the kerf 
being made with reference to the 
knife line as in Fig. 35, the surplus 
stock remaining, being removed 
with a plane. In such sawing 
the stock should be placed flat 
side up, not edge up, a back-saw 
blade cannot be twisted as can the 

hand-saw and rip-saw to make it 

, ,, ^u r f'ig' ^5. Sawing Par- 

follow the Ime. allel to Line 




CHAPTER IV 

Planes; Their Adjustments; Face Side, Face Edge 

14. Planes. — The planes shown in Figs. 36-39 are 
those most used in ordinary woodwork. Of these, the 




Fig. 36. Jack Plane 



Fig. 37. Smooth Planj 



jack-plane alone will suffice for grammar grade work, 
its iron being ground straight across then whetted very 
slightly rounding. Where a full set of planes is avail- 
able, the jack-plane is used for taking off rather large 




Fig. 38. Jointer 

quantities, the blade being still more rounding than for 
manual training purposes. 

The smooth-plane, Fig. 37, is also sometimes used 
in elementary manual training work. Its short length 

24 



PLANES; THEIR ADJUSTMENT 25 

makes it less suited for planing edges of 15'' and over. 
It is used by carpenters for smoothing, the blade being 
ground and whetted straight across with the corners 
slightly rounded. 

The jointer, Fig. 38, is used mainly for planing edges 
of long boards, etc. The blade is ground and whetted 
straight across. The extra length keeps the blade from 
cutting the hollows until the high spots have been 
removed. 

The block-plane, Fig. 39, is of especial advantage 
where a vise is not available for holding the stock, and 
one hand must be used to hold the 
stock while the other holds the 
plane. It differs from the other 
planes in that it has no cap-iron 
and in having the bevel of the 
plane-iron placed up instead of down. The mouth of 
this plane is adjustable, a small lever at the front of 
the plane being used for this purpose. 




Fig. 39. Block Plane 







I. Plane-iron. g. Lateral Adjust- 


^is. 1 




2. Cap-iron. ment. 






3. Plane-iron Screw. lo. Frog Screw. 






4. Cap. II. Handle. 


\A\^^tf:^~\ 




S. Cap-screw. 12. Knob. 


M/Ti^^ 




6. Frog. 13- Handle Bolt and 


/ {//>mfe\ 


4 


7. " Y " Adjustment. Nut. 


//iir"^^ 




8. Adjusting Nut. 14. Knob Bolt and 


/ 1 yv/ ^^Z^ 


O^ 


.H. Nut. 


^ ^^ WT iOf 


iC^^* 


-5 THROAT /-T^rx i=;- Handle Screw. 


^^^s 


r--^/ (VmI J 16. Bottom, Bed or 


& 


W//7)////\<> ////m)i!/innih 


//// \\ / 


^i^////. '/^nmh\^^ 






^^\OUTH 


Fig. 40. 


Parts of a Standard Plane 



15. Adjustments of a Standard Plane. — Fig. 40 
names and locates the various parts of a modern plane. 



26 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 




Fig. 41 shows in detail the two irons of the plane, 
the plane-iron or plane-blade or bit and the cap-iron. 
The cap-iron acts as a shaving breaker. Were the grain 
of the wood the least unfavorable and such a shaving 
breaker not used, the plane-iron would cause the wood 
to split and break as shown in Fig. 41, lower figure. 
The sectional view, Fig. 40, shows 
the relative positions of plane- 
iron and cap-iron. The cutting 
edge of the plane-iron should 
extend about jt in. below that of 
the cap-iron for ordinary work. 
For fine work this distance may 
be lessened. Before the irons are 
placed in the plane the plane-iron 
screw must be made fast by means 
of a screwdriver or the plane cap. 
After the irons are fastened together properly, they 
may be placed in the throat of the plane, plane-iron down 
and cap-iron up. Make certain the plane-iron rests 
flat upon the frog, with the Y-adjustment inserted in the 
slot made for it in the cap-iron. The cap may next be 
placed and its cam pushed down. Should it be impos- 
sible to force the cam into place without great pressure, 
first look to see that the plane-iron rests fiat upon the 
frog with the Y-lever in its slot in the cap-iron. With 
beginners, this is the most frequent cause of a tight acting 
cam. Sometimes, however, a loose acting cap-screw 
will be the cause of either a tight or a loose acting cam. 
Once a cap-screw is adjusted, it seldom needs attention 
unless loose fitting. The cam should cause the cap to 



Fig. 41. Action With 

and Without Shaving 

Breaker 



PLANES; THEIR ADJUSTMENT 



27 



press no tighter against the irons than is necessary to 
prevent their moving from side to side in the throat of 
the plane when tested with the fingers. 

In adjusting a plane-iron for depth of cut, hold the 
plane as in Fig. 42, looking toward the Hght. Sight 
along the plane bottom, at the same time turning the 
brass adjusting nut until the cutting edge projects very 
slightly, not much 
more than the 
thickness of a 
piece of drawing 
paper. A shallow 
set plane-iron re- 
sulting in "tissue 
paper" shavings 
will enable one to 
secure good results 
quicker than any 
other kind of a set- 
ting. Where the 
wood is rough sawed, a carpenter, it is true, will set 
the iron sHghtly deeper, but he invariably sets it shal- 
lower as soon as he has removed this surplus stock. A 
second adjustment consists in moving the lateral adjust- 
ing lever, while sighting along the bottom of the plane 
toward the hght, until the cutting edge of the iron shall 
project evenly. 

16. Face Side, Face Edge.— The first surface — a 
broad surface, should the piece not be square in section, 
and the first edge selected or prepared have a special 
use and are given distinguishing names. The first sur- 




Fig. 42. Sighting a Plane-iron 



28 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



face is known as a face side or working face, and the first 
edge is known as a face edge or joint edge. They are 
marked as indicated in Fig. 43, the marks being made 
near the middle of the length of the piece, so that they 
may be distinguished from the other surfaces, which are 
not marked. From these two marked surfaces all 
testing, as described later, is done, the head of the gage 







Fig, 43. Face Side; Face Edge 



Fig. 4-4. Faces Turned In 



and the beam of the try-square being held against these 
and these only. To do otherwise is to introduce addi- 
tional chances for errors. 

Where the project is to consist of but one member, the 
better broad surface and the better edge are selected for 
face side and face edge. Frequently it is difficult to 
decide which is the better surface or edge. Usually, 
however, streaks of sapwood, or small knots, or checks 
appear more numerous upon one surface than the other. 



PLANES; THEIR ADJUSTMENT 29 

Where several members are to be joined together to 
form a project, such as a table or chair, it is best to so 
select the faces that they may be turned in when the 
members are put together. Fig, 44. Faces are more 
likely to be accurately made than are the reverse sur- 
faces and, for this reason, the joints are more likely to 
fit properly if the faces are placed so that the mortises 
or joints may be made in them. This would mean, of 
course, that the surfaces selected for faces should be the 
poorer rather than the good surfaces as in the case of the 
single piece project. 



CHAPTER V 

Squaring-up Stock 

17. Mill-Marks. — Before the time of woodworking 
machines, such as we have to-day, it was customary to 
surface or plane the broad surfaces by hand, as will be 
described later in this chapter. To-day, woodworkers 



■ 


|P|fflW|f":,^-J[^il||iM|F 


■m4 




% 


^ 




-% 


— ^-^ 


wm 





Fig. 45. Surfacing Machine 

may go to any lumber yard and get stock, machine planed 
upon the two broad surfaces to stock thicknesses. Such 
surfaces are sufficiently smooth or level and the thick- 
nesses sufficiently uniform for much woodwork, especially 
in carpentry, so that the process of squaring up the stock, 
which means making the edges, surfaces, and ends at 

30 



SQUARING-UP STOCK 31 

right angles to a face side or a face edge, is greatly 
simplified. 

Fig. 45 is an illustration of a machine used to plane 
broad surfaces of boards. This machine has long knives 
attached to a revolving cylinder extending across the 
bed. As the board is made to travel over the bed by an 
automatic feed, these knives, revolving at a speed of 
3,500 to 3,800 revolutions per minute, remove chips 
entirely across the board. Where the board is fed over 
the' table slowly, thus giving the knives plenty of time 
for action on a given place, it is difficult for a beginner to 
tell a machine planed board from one that is hand planed. 
The little ridges and hollows across the machine planed 
board are there, however, and must be removed with the 
hand plane, where a stain or filler is to be applied later. 
If this is not done, every ridge and hollow will be made 
to stPvUd out prominently when the stain is applied. 

18. Methods of Squaring-up Stock. — For the sake 
of convenience we may classify the methods of squaring- 
up stock under the following heads; squaring-up mill- 
planed stock for (1) outside finish; (2) inside finish; 
(3) squaring up rough-sawed stock or mill-planed stock 
where accuracy is very important. In reality there is 
but one method of squaring-up stock — number three — 
the others being modifications of the order for this. 

The simplest process of squaring-up stock is that used 
in preparing stock for outside building finish, such, as 
base, corner boards, cornice members, etc. For this 
purpose mill-planed stock is made use of, stock thick- 
nesses being specified. Since such finish is usually 
painted, and, being on the outside, does not require a 



32 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

fine treatment, nothing is done to the broad surfaces, 
not even planing off the mill-marks or sandpapering. 
Many manual training shop problems, such as cutting- 
boards, bird houses, etc., may be treated in this same 
manner. 

A larger number of manual training projects will make 
use of the second method of squaring-up stock — that 




Fig. 46. Position in Edge Planing 

used in preparing interior building finish. This differs 
from the one just described in that, being intended for 
inside work where the surfaces will be stained and waxed 
or varnished, the mill-marks must be removed from one 
or both broad surfaces, and these sandpapered well. 
Like outside finish, inside finish, too, does not require 
that its broad surfaces be perfectly true or out of wind, 
merely smooth. The reason stock slightly warped will 
answer for all exterior and most interior finish is due to 
the fact that most of the wind can be ''nailed out" in 
assembUng, Fig. 101. 

Projects in furniture construction and in pattern- 



SQUARING-UP STOCK 



33 



making, however, do not as a rule have assembUes which 
permit of "naihng out" warp or wind. For this reason 
a third method, more difficult than those mentioned, is 
required in which the first surface must be made true, 
with warp and wind removed. A uniform thickness is 
gaged from this trued surface. 

19. Squaring-up Mill-Planed Stock. First Method: 




Fig. 47. Starting the Stroke 



(1) Select and mark one of the broad surfaces for a 
face side, Fig. 43. (2) Select and plane a face edge 
(a) square to the face side and (b) straight as to length. 
Place the piece in the vise and assume a position as 
in Fig. 46. Plane the edge straight as to its length and 
square to the face side just prepared. In elementary 
manual training the jack-plane will be used for this 
purpose. Press firmly upon the knob in starting the 
stroke. Fig. 47, and upon the handle at its close, Fig. 48; 
otherwise the ends will be lowered more than the middle 
of the board. In planing a long board it will be neces- 
sary to stop and start some of the strokes in the middle 



34 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



of the length of the board. It is possible to do this 
without leaving any plane marks by lowering the plane 
gradually in starting and raising it gradually in stopping 




Fig, 48. Finishing the Stroke 




Fig. 49. Sighting for Straightness Fig. 50. Straight-edge Test 



a stroke, getting what is known as a '^ feathered " shaving. 
Take off no more shavings than are necessary to secure 
the required straightness and squareness. 

After the first stroke or two, hold the piece toward 
the Hght, as in Fig. 49, close one eye and sight for 



SQUARING-UP STOCK 



35 



straightness. The beginner will do well to make use 
of a straight-edge test, as in Fig. 50, until he has made 
sure he can "sight" correctly. No light should appear 
between the edge of the stock and the straight-edge 
when they are held between the eye and the light. 

The second test, that for squareness of the edge, is 
made by holding the try-square as in Fig. 16 and sight- 
ing toward the light. Hold the 
beam firmly against the face side 
and test at a sufficient number of 
places along the edge to deter- 
mine what the true condition is. 

In edge planing the beginner 
should remember that his plane- 
iron is sHghtly rounding on its 
cutting edge, and that all he 
needs do to take a shaving at 
any given place is to continue 
holding the plane level but move 
the whole plane body over until 
the rounded central part of the 
cutter is immediately over the "high" place on the 
stock. Fig. 51 shows the plane placed to take a shaving 
off the edge at the arris nearest the worker. The final 
stroke should be taken the full length of the stock and 
down the middle of the edge that any slight unevenness 
resulting from partial strokes may be removed. 

Place the face mark on this edge when it meets the 
required tests, marking it as in Fig. 43. 

(3) Plane the second edge (a) square to the face side, (b) 
straight as to its length and (c) parallel to the face edge. 




Fig. 51. Removing a 
High Arris 



36 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



Where a definite and exact width of board is required, 
a line is gaged from the face edge by means of a mark- 
ing gage set as in Fig. 23 and held as in Fig. 52 with the 
head against the face edge. The line should be lightly- 
made and the planing continued until half of the hght 
V-shaped groove is removed. Test the edge for square- 
ness frequently as the 
gage line is approached 
that the edge may be 
square when the line is 
reached. If the gage 
line is approached pro- 
perly the edge should be 
straight and parallel to 
the face edge. It is 
well for the beginner 
to test this edge for 
straightness, and for 
width with the sliding 
try-square test. 
Fig. 52. Gaging Where the waste 

stock is more than p, in. 
it should be ripped parallel to the gage line and about 
yi in. away from it. 

If much stock is to be removed the plane-iron may be 
set so as to take heavy shavings. When nearing the 
gage line it should be set to take fine shavings. 

Not infrequently, while no definite width is required, 
it is desired to have the second edge planed straight, 
square to the face side, and parallel to the face edge. 
In such a case, the worker simply planes the second 





Fig. 53. End Planing; First Position 



SQUARING-UP STOCK 37 

edge until it is straight, square, and meets the sliding 
try-square test illustrated in Fig. 19. 

(4) Square up one of the ends (a) to the face side, 

(b) to the face 
edge. Ends may 
be finished in two 
ways: by sawing 
accurately to the 
line squared across 
from the face edge, 
Figs. 15 and 32; 
second, the end 

may be planed square. Ends sawed to make joints are 

usually ''undercut" very slightly; that is, the sawing is 

done in such a way 

as to leave the 

face slightly longer 

than the back, thus 

insuring a fit on 

the face. 

In planing an 

end, the plane-iron 

should be very 

sharp and set very 

shallow and true. 

Test the end by 

holding the blade of the try-square across it with the 

beam against the face side and then the face edge, Figs. 

17 and 18. 
End planing dift'ers from edge and surface planing 

in that the plane-iron must not be allowed to cut entirely 




Fig. 54. End Planing; Second Position 



38 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

across the piece or the far edge will be broken off, Fig. 
53. To avoid this, plane about two- thirds of the way 
across the end and then reverse the piece and plane from 
the other edge, Fig. 54. Test frequently as indicated 
above, and plane no more than is necessary to secure a 
result which meets the two tests indicated. 

(5) Square up the second end (a) square to the face 
side, (b) square to the face edge. Where no definite 
length is required for the piece, the second end is merely 




Fig. 55. Measuring Length 

planed as was the first end, the same tests being appKed. 
That is, the try-square is held with its blade across the 
end and its beam against the face side and then against 
the face edge, Figs. 17 and 18. 

If the end is to be sawed square without planing, the 
try-square and pencil, or knife for accurate work, will 
be used to scribe a line across the face side and one edge, 
as in Fig. 15. The stock is then sawed as in Fig. 32. 

Where a definite length of stock is prescribed, the 
rule should be placed as in Fig. 55, and the exact length 
marked. A line is scribed through this mark. Fig. 15, 
and the surplus stock either sawed exactly to the line 
where a sawed joint is to be made, or sawed about a 



SQUARING-UP STOCK 39 

scant T6 in. outside of the line where a perfectly smooth 
end is to be left. After this latter sawing, the re in. 
surplus stock is removed with the plane. 




Fig. 56. First Test for Surface Fig. 57. Second Test for Surface 
Trueness Trueness 




Fig. 58. Third Test for Surface Fig. 59. Fourth Test for Surface 
Trueness Trueness 

20. Squaring-up Mill-Planed Stock. Second 
Method: The only difference between the second method 
and the first method consists in the fact that the first 
broad surface, instead of simply having its face mark 
put on, must be planed smooth and free of mill marks. 
There is but one test for this surface, a test with the try- 



40 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



square held as in Fig. 56 to see whether the board is 
straight across the grain, the test being made at a number 
of places along the board. 

21. Squaring-up Rough Stock. Third Method oj 
Squaring Stock: (1) True and smooth a broad surface 
for a face side, testing as in Figs. 56, 57, 58, 59. Put 
on the proper face mark, Fig. 43. 







V 




1^^ 


#•. 


'^^^^9 


P 


t 









Fig. 60. Pencil Gaging for Chamfer 



(2) Prepare a face edge in the usual manner, as 
described in connection with mill-planed stock. 

(3) Gage to width from the face edge and plane to 
the gage Hne, as in mill-planed stock. 

(4) Gage to thickness on both edges from face side. 
Plane to the gage lines, testing as in Fig. 56. 

(5) Square one end in the usual manner, testing as in 
Figs. 17 and 18. 

(6) Measure the required length and complete the 
second end as in mill-planed stock. 



SQUARING-UP STOCK 41 

22. Planing a Chamfer. — Very frequently the arrises 
of a board are removed; the result produced is known as 
a chamfer. Chamfers are laid out with a pencil rather 




Fig. 61. Planing Chamfered Edges 

than gage and try-square and knife. While the latter 
is more accurate the V-shaped grooves produced, spoil 
the appearance of the piece after the chamfering is 




Fig. 62. Planing Chamfered Ends 



completed to the lines. Hold the pencil as in Fig. 60, 
first having measured the required distance the chamfer 
is to be laid out from the arris. This method of laying 
out a chamfer is known as pencil gaging. The lines will 



42 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



be laid off on edges, on ends, and on the surface at the 
two edges and two ends where the chamfer is to be 
placed, entirely around the piece of stock. 

Holding the plane as in Fig. 61 plane the two arrises 
extending along the grain. Next, holding the plane 
as in Fig. 62, but moving it in a horizontal direction, 
plane the two end chamfers. By holding the plane as 
indicated in Fig. 62 a shearing cut is secured which, 
with the buttressed effect produced by planing the edge 
chamfers first, makes it possible to plane entirely across 
the end without splitting the far corner. In all cases 
where a plane is turned across the stock so as to secure 
a shearing cut, the plane should not be turned so far that 
the benefit of its length is lost as an aid to producing a 
straight surface. 

As a rule, the eye will detect inaccuracies in a chamfer. 
If a further test is desired, Fig. 63 illustrates one. 




Fig. 63. Testing a Chamfer 



CHAPTER VI 

Boring Tools; Their Uses. Chisels and Chiseling 

23. Brace or Bitstock.— The brace, Fig. 64, is used 
to hold various kinds of bits. A ratchet brace differs 




Fig. 64. Brace, or Bitstock 



Fig. 65. Inserting a Bit 



from the plain brace in that, by means of an adjustment, 
it can be made to turn in one direction or the other, as 
well as being made to act as a plain brace. 

To insert a bit, hold the brace as in Fig. 65, revolving 
the crank to open and close the jaws. 

43 



44 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



24. The Auger-Bit. — The auger-bit, Fig. 68, is used 
for all ordinary work. The size of hole a bit will bore 
can be told by the number on its tang, which number is 
the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is 16 on 




Fig. 66. Horizontal Boring; First Position 




Fig. 67. Horizontal Boring; Second Position 



BORING TOOLS; THEIR USES 45 

auger-bits and 32 on drill bits. Sometimes the whole 
fraction is stamped on the shank or the tang. 

In boring, stand so as to sight the brace and bit from 
two directions at right angles one to the other, Figs. 66, 



^^=^ 




TWI5T 

Fiar. 68. Auger-bit 



67, 69 and 70, swinging the upper part of the body 
from one position to the other as the boring proceeds. 





Fig. 69. Vertical Boring; 
First Position 



Fig. 



70. Vertical Boring; 
Second Position 



In boring to depth, a rule may be placed as in Fig. 71 
as the lips begin to cut, and the boring continued until 
the measurement at the grip has diminished an amount 
equal to that desired for the depth of hole. 



46 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



Where it is desired to bore entirely through a board, it 
is best to bore from the first side until the spur shows on 
the back, then reverse the piece and finish the boring 

from the reverse side, other- 



wise the nibs might split 
the wood on the reverse 
surface. 

25. The DriU Bit; Awls; 
the Gimlet Bit.— The drill 
bit. Fig. 72, is tempered 
quite hard and may be 
used to bore in metal as 
well as in wood. As this 
bit has no spur, it is best 
to make a ''seat" for it. 
In metal a punch is used; 
in wood an awl, Fig. 73, 
will be used. 

Gimlet bits. Fig. 74, are used mainly in boring small 
holes for screws. 

The brad awl is used in making very small holes for 




Fig. 71. Measuring Depth 




Fig. 72. Drill Bit 



Fig. 73. Scribe Awl 



Fig. 74. Gimlet Bit 




Fig. 75. Couiitersiak Bit 



Fig. 76. Screwdriver Bit 



CHISELS AND CHISELING 



47 



small screws, but more especially for nails. It differs 
from the scribe awl only in that its extremity has a 
chisel edge instead of a point. 

26. Countersink Bit ; Screwdriver Bit. — The counter- 
sink bit, Fig. 75, is used to enlarge the holes bored for 



BEVEL OR GRIMD 



FERRULE 



TANG 



rt 




HANDLE' 
Fig. 77. Firmer Chisel 



LEATHER Tipi 




Fig. 7. 



SOCKET 

Framing Ciiisel 



i=in?RULE 



the bodies or cores of flat-head screws, that the heads 
may be sunk slightly below the surface of the wood. 

The screwdriver bit, Fig. 76, is used in connection with 
the brace for the rapid insertion of screws. To avoid the 
screwdriver bit's jumping out of the groove in the head 
of the screw, after each half turn of the crank, move the 
crank backward very 
slightly. 

27. Chisels.— The 
two kinds of chisels 
most commonly used 
are the firmer chisel. 
Fig. 77, and the framing 
chisel. Fig. 78. The firmer chisel is lighter than the 
framing chisel and is used for fine work. The framing 
chisel is used where the work is such as to demand 




Fig. 79. Mallet 



48 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



pounding with a mallet, Fig. 79, to force its edge into 
the wood. The firmer chisel is usually fitted on a 
tang, though it may be fitted with a socket. 

The size of a chisel is indicated by the width of the 
cutting edge. 





Fig. 80. Position of Hands, 
Horizontal Chiseling 



Fig. 



51. Position of Hands, 
Vertical Chiseling 



A chisel, to do good work, must be kept sharp. To 
avoid any chance for injury, both hands should at all 
times be kept back of the cutting edge, Figs. 80 and 81. 

28. Chiseling. — In paring across the grain horizon- 
tally, place the piece of wood in a vise so that both hands 
may be free to manipulate the chisel. Fig. 80. With the 
bevel side of the chisel up, pare almost all the way across 
the piece, taking fairly large cuts at first, with thinner 
ones as the fine is approached. Reverse the piece, and 
finish the cutting from the second side. 

The sides of such a groove would be sawed first. 



CHISELS AND CHISELING 



49 



Where it is desired to trim or pare the sides of such 
a groove to make the groove wider, the chisel will be 




Fig. 82. Gouge 

held as in Fig. 81, the worker standing so that he may 
sight along the Hne he is cutting. Very small portions 
are taken at a time, about yi in. of the blade being used 





Fig. 83. Position of Hands, 
Heavy Cut 



Fig. 84. Position of Hands, 
Light Cut 



for cutting, the rest of the blade being held against the 
surface already pared. The movement of the handle is 
forward and downward to give what is known as a shear- 
ing cut. Fig. 81. 



50 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

29. The Gouge.— The gouge, Fig. 82, which is a 
chisel of curved section, may have its bevel on either the 
inside or outside of the curved blade. Figs. S3 and 84 
illustrate the manner of holding an outside beveled 




Fig. 85. Grinding a Chisel 



Fig. 87. Starting Position in W^hetting 



gouge for taking heavy and Hght cuts. Gouges cut 
better when given a circular movement at the cutting 
edge as the tool is pushed forward. 

30. Whetting Chisels and Plane Irons. — When 
edged tools become dulled through repeated whettings, 
or through being brought into contact with metal, 
they must be ground, Fig. 85. Grinding is a rather 
difficult task for beginners to learn to do well. Beginners 
ought, however, to learn tj whet their edged tools. 



CHISELS AND CHISELING 



51 



Fig. S8. 
Shape of 
Jack-plane 
Iron. E X - 

aggerated. 



Whetting consists in rubbing the tool backward and 

forward, Fig. 86, taking care to hold the tool at one and 
the same angle. This angle may be deter- 
mined as follows: place a little oil on the 
stone, and placing the iron as in Fig. 87, 
gradually raise the handle until the oil 
can be seen to press out from under the 
cutting edge, Fig. 86. To raise the handle 

any higher would result in a blunt edge in whetting. 

Not to raise it high enough to expel the oil would result 

in the whetting being 

done at the heel of the 

bevel, which would do 

no good. 

Oil is used upon a 

whetstone to mix with 

and remove the little 

particles of steel which, 

otherwise, would clog 

the pores of the stone. 
A chisel has its edge 

ground straight across. 

A plane iron for general 

manual training pur- 
poses is ground straight 

across but is whetted 

slightly rounded as in 

Fig. 88. 

Whetting usually causes a wire edge to be turned up 

on the face of a chisel or plane-iron. This wire edge may 

be detected by rubbing the fingers along the face out 




Fig. 89. First Stropping Position 




Fig. 90. Second Stropping Position 



52 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERo 



over the edge. To remove this edge, strop the tool 
upon a piece of leather upon which has been placed a 
slight coating of oil and emery dust. Hold the tool 
first as in Fig. 89, then as in Fig. 90, alternating rapidly 
from one position to the other as the stropping proceeds. 





Fig. 91. Thumb-nail Test for 
Sharpness 



Fig, 92. iVIechanics' Test for 
Sharpness 



There are a number of ways of telling whether an edge 
is sharp or not. One way is to draw the edge over the 
thumb-nail as in Fig. 91. If the tool is sharp it can be 
felt '' taking hold." If the edge is not sharp it will 
simply slide .over the nail. 

A more delicate test, the one used by carpenters, is 
to make the same kind of a test but using the ball of the 
thumb, Fig. 92. Judgment is required in this latter 
test or a cut thumb will be the result. Do not use a 
finger. The thumb is calloused and when the sharp 
edge ''takes hold" it is cutting in this callous. 



CHAPTER VII 

Additional Tools and Appliances; Their Uses. 

31. Sandpaper. — Sandpaper should be used only 
after the edged tools have, completely finished their 
work. Sandpaper is intended merely as a means of 




Fig. 93. Sandpapering Flat 
Surface 



Fig. 94. Sandpapering Curved 
Surface 



smoothing a surface, and any attempt to make it do the 
work of an edged tool will result in an unsatisfactory 
piece of work. 

In sanding flat surfaces use a block, holding the paper 
with the fingers as indicated in Fig. 93, sanding along, 
not across, the grain of the wood. Curved surfaces will 
be sanded with the paper held free in the hand, as in 
Fig. 94. 

On flat surfaces the arrises are kept sharp, unless upon 
the arm of a chair, or similar part, where the sharpness 
would cause injury or discomfort. 

53 



54 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



The relative fineness or coarseness of sandpaper can 
be told by the number stamped upon the back of each 




CLAW 



Fig. 95. Claw Hammer 

sheet. These numbers vary from 00 to 2, the former 
being quite fine and used for sanding shellac and other 

finishes. No. 1 is most (_------ — w- t h 

commonly used in manual /cup point 

training work. Fig. 96. Nailset 

Never sandpaper the parts to a joint; the edged tools 
must be depended upon entirely for joint work. 

32. Hammer; Nailset. 
— The hammer most com- 
monly used by woodwork- 
ers is what is known as a 
bell-faced claw hammer, 
Fig. 95. The face of this 
hammer is slightly rounded 
that it may be used in set- 
ting nails upon outside work 
where the depression left 
by the face of the hammer 
is not objectionable. 




Fig. 97. Setting Nails 



Upon inside work, and in cabinet work, a nailset, Fig. 
96, will be used in setting nails. Such a set is held as in 



ADDITIONAL TOOLS 



55 



<€^ 



n 



' Fig. 98. 
Wire Nail: 



Fig. 99. 
Cut Nails 



Fig. 97, one of the fingers resting against its point and 

upon the surface of the wood at the same time, to prevent 

the set from jumping off the nail 

head when the blow is struck wath 

the hammer. The head of the 

nail will be driven very slightly 

below the surface of the wood. 
33 . Nails ; Nailing. — Nails used 

by woodworkers differ in shape or 

style according to their peculiar 

use. The most common type is 

the wire nail, Fig. 98. The cut 

nail, Fig. 99, is often used for fast- 
ening shingles as it does not rust 

as quickly as the wire nail. These 

nails are each classed as common, 

finishing, and casing nails, Figs. 98 

and 99. Nails are sold by the pound and are roughly 

classified as to size by the 
term penny, as 3 penny, 
6 penny, etc. A more ac- 
curate specification is one 
which indicates the gage of 
the wire as indicated upon 
a wire gage, Fig. 100, and 
the length of the nail in 
inches; thus, VA" No. 17 
finishing nail. In deter- 
mining the gage of a nail, it 

should be noted that the reading is obtained by fitting 

the slot of the wire gage, and not the hole to the body 




Fig. 100. Wire Gage 




Fig. lOL Nailing 



56 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



of the nail. The number at the slot which comes 
nearest fitting is the one which indicates the gage of the 
nail. 

In nailing through one piece into the edge of another 

piece, the worker should stand 
so that he may sight along the 
second piece into which he is 
nailing. Fig. 101. It is cus- 
tomary to start one of the 
nails in the first piece so that 
its point just projects slightly 
through the reverse side, the 
board being placed upon a 
scrap block that the nail point 
may not injure the bench top. 
After this the first member is 




Fig. 102. Withdrawing Nails 



placed upon the second member as in Fig. 101 and the 
nail driven in. 

In nailing on box bottoms, care must be taken to so 
place the nails that they shall not strike nails previously 



ir-^n 



-TV- 



HANDLE 



BLADE/ 
Fig. 103. Screwdriver 



DETAIL OF POINT- 



driven through the sides into the ends or partitions of the 
box. Should a nail not take the desired direction, noth- 
ing is gained by striking it sidewise with the hammer in 
an effort to change its direction. This but serves to 
aggravate the difiiculty by bending the nail in such a 
manner that it will ''come out" sooner than it otherwise 



ADDITIONAL TOOLS 



57 



Fig. 105 

Determining 

Length of 

Screw 



would have done. Withdraw the nail and start it in a 
new location. 

In withdrawing a nail, place a block of scrap wood 
under the head of the hammer to 
prevent its marring the wood, 
Fig. 102. If the nail is long, use 
several blocks of different thick- 
nesses as the nail is withdrawn. 

34. The Screwdriver ; Screws ; 
Fastening with Screws.— In Fig. 
103 is shown a common type of 
screwdriver. The end if shaped 
as shown will be found less likely 

to ''jump out" of the groove in Screw' Gage 

the head of the screw, resulting in ^^ ^^^ 
a marred surface on the wood. 

Screws used in woodwork are of two kinds: round- 
head and flat-head, either bright or blued steel, or brass. 
They are made entirely by machines and 
are put up in pasteboard boxes and sold 
by the gross. The size of a screw is 
designated by its screw gage and its length 
in inches. Fig. 104 shows the manner of 
placing a screw in the screw gage to deter- 
mine its gage. Fig. 105 shows the manner 
of determining its length. 
When fastening two pieces of hardwood together, 
holes will have to be bored in both lower and upper piece 
as shown in Fig. 106. This illustration shows the screw 
hole in the upper member countersunk ready to receive 
a flat-head screw. Round-head screws require no 




Fig. 106. 
Holes Bored 
in Hard Wood 
for Screw 



58 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

countersinking. Upon soft wood the hole in the lower 
member is not necessary. 




lULBERff 

:rew 



5H0ULBER 
5CREW 



cbi ^ 



shoulder] 

JAW 1- 



^ 



teoraxoccoD 



SCREW 
■JAW 



I BACK 
SCREW 



K mss^s v : 



Fis. 107. Glue Pot 



Fig. 108. Hand Clamp 




PALL 



BAR 
Fig. 109. Bar Clamp 



35. Glue ; Clamps. — Cabinet-makers use glue instead 
of nails for fastening parts together. Glue is made from 

the strippings of hide, 
from horns, hoofs, 
etc., of animals. 
These are boiled to a 
jelly-like consistency 
and chemically 
treated to give a clear 
color, and remove the 
^. ,,,, ,, . . , ... . ^, disagreeable odor. As 

Fig. 110. Position for Adjusting Clamp ° 

glue liquifies very 
slowly, it must be heated in a double boiler, Fig. 107, 
the outer pot containing water. 

Glue is prepared by soaking it in water over night, then 




ADDITIONAL TOOLS 



59 



applying a steady heat to the outer pot or kettle. Water 
is added as the glue cooks until the glue has a con- 
sistency which will flow freely when applied with a brush. 



THUA\B-S CREW- 
HANDLE 




Fig. 111. Spokeshave 



Clamps are used to expel the surplus glue from 
between the parts being glued together. Two kinds are 
in common use, the hand-clamp, Fig. 108, and the bar- 
clamp, Fig. 109. 

In placing the hand-clamp, see that the jaws are kept 
parallel, adjusting by ro- 
tating the clamp as in 
Fig. 110. Tighten the 
back spindle last. 

36. The Spokeshave; 
Working Curved Edges. — 
The spokeshave, Fig. HI, 
is practically a short plane, 
and like the plane should 
be adjusted so that it will 
remove thin shavings. It 
is used chiefly upon curved 
surface work and may be either pushed or pulled. 

To make a curved edge upon the edge of a board, 
pencil gage lines on each of the broad surfaces which 
shall indicate the amount of curvature. Next, on the 
edge, pencil gage two hues each a distance from an edge 




Fk 



112. Gaging Chamfers for 
Curved Edge 



60 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

equal to one-fourth the thickness of the piece, Fig. 112. 
Spokeshave or, if the edge is straight, plane off the two 
arrises so as to leave three surfaces, the central one being 
the broader. Next, estimating the amount with the 
eye, remove the two central arrises until five equal 
surfaces have been formed. Holding the sandpaper as 
in Fig. 94, sand along the grain until a smooth curve is 
formed. 



CHAPTER VIII 



Simple Joinery 

37. Joinery; General Directions. — The term joinery 
as used herein refers merely to the fitting together of 
two or more parts called the members. Take into con- 
sideration the direction of the grain in planning the rela- 
tive positions of the members. Make due allowance 
where shrinkage is likely 
to be considerable. 

As far as possible, plan 
to have the members join 
face to face. Face sides 
are more likely to be true 
than are the other two sur- 
faces and therefore the 
joints are more likely to 
fit properly. 

Make all measurements from a common starting point, 
as far as practicable. Remember to keep the head of 
the gage and the beam of the try-square against one or 
the other of the faces, unless there should be special 
reasons for doing otherwise. 

In practice it is sometimes advisable to locate the sides 
of a joint by superposition rather than by measurement. 
Laying out by superposition consists in placing one mem- 
ber upon another and marking upon the second member 

61 




Fig. 113. Locating by 
Superposition 



62 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 





Fig. 114. 



Members INIarked after 
Fittins; 



the width, thickness or length of the first. Fig. 113. 
Usually, it is found possible to locate and square with 
knife and try-square a line to represent one of the sides 
of the joint. The first member is then held so that one 
^^ of its arrises rests upon 

-mM this line, and a point is 

made with knife at the 
other arris. The super- 
imposed piece is then re- 
moved and a line made 
with knife and try-square 
through the mark of the 
knife point. 

Where several members 
or parts are to be laid out, 
cut and fitted, it is of the 
utmost importance that the work be done systematically. 
System and power to visualize — that is, to see things 
in their proper relation to one another in the finished 
piece — make it possible for men to lay out and cut the 
members of the most intricate frames of buildings before 
a single part has been put together. Where several 
joints of a similar size and kind are to be fitted, mark 
the different parts to each joint with the same number 
or letter as soon as fitted, that no other member may 
be fitted to either of these. Fig. 1 14. On small pieces, 
such as the stool, it is possible to aid in visualizing by 
setting up the posts in the positions they are to occupy 
relative to one another, marking roughly, as with a pen- 
ciled circle, the approximate location of the mortises, 
auger holes, etc. Fig. 115. The members may then be 



SIMPLE JOINERY 63 

laid on the bench and accurately marked without danger 
of misplacing the openings. 

While the knife is used almost exclusively in laying out 
joints, there are a few instances in which a pencil, if well 
sharpened and used 
with slight pressure is 
preferable. To illus- 
trate, suppose it is de- 
sired to locate the ends 
of the mortises in the 
posts. Fig. 114. To 
knife entirely across 
the surfaces of the four 
pieces and around the 
sides of each, as would 
be necessary to locate 
the ends of the mor- 
tises, would injure the 
surfaces. Instead, pen- 
cil these lines and gage 
between the pencil 
lines. Those parts of the pencil lines enclosed by the gage 
lines — the ends of the mortises — may then be knifed, 
if desired, to assist in placing the chisel for the final cut. 

In sawing joints in hard wood, the saw should be made 
to cut accurately to the line. When working soft wood, 
beginners are often permitted to leave a small margin — 
about one thirty-second of an inch — between the knife 
line and the saw kerf. This margin is afterward pared 
away with the chisel. 

In assembling framework and the like, where it is 




Fig. 115. 



Location of Joints Roughly 
jNIarked 



64 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



necessary to drive the parts together, always place a 
block of wood upon the member to be pounded to take 
the indentations that will be made. A mallet is prefer- 
able to a hammer for such pounding. 

Frequently a piece of work will require the making of 
two or more like parts. To lay out these parts, that is, 
to mark out the location of intended gains, mortises, 




Fig. 116. Making Ends 
Even 



Fig. 117. 



Marking Duplicate 
Lengths 



shoulders of tenons, etc., so that all shall be alike, the 
following method is used: (1) On the face edge of one 
of the pieces measure off with the rule and mark with 
knife the points at which the lines for the joints are to be 
squared across. If knife marks would show on the 
finished surface as scratches, use a sharp pencil instead. 
(2) Lay the pieces on the bench top with the face edges 
up; even the ends with the try-square. Figs. 116 and 
117. Square lines across the edges of all of them at the 
points previously marked on one of them. The pieces 
may then be separated and lines corresponding to the 
Hnes just made on the face edges be carried across 



SIMPLE JOINERY 65 

the face sides of each piece separately, the try-square 
beam being held against the face edge in so doing, of 
course. 

In all duplicate work the aim of the worker should be 
to make as much use as possible of the tool he has in 
hand before laying it down and taking another. To 
illustrate, if there should be a number of like parts, each 
requiring two different settings of the gage, he should 
mark all of the parts at the first setting, then all at the 




Fig. 118, Testing Dado for Deptli 

second setting, rather than to change the gage for each 
piece so that each piece might be completely marked 
before another is begun. 

38. Directions for Making a Dado. — A dado, Fig. 
118, is made by cutting a rectangular groove entirely 
across one member into which the end of another member 
fits. Dadoes are cut across the grain of the wood; when 
similar openings are cut parallel to the grain, they are 
called simply grooves. Dadoes are used in the making 
of shelving, window and door frames, etc. 

(1) Locate by means of the rule one side of the dado 
and mark its position with the point of the knife. 
(2) At this point, square a sharp line across the piece 
with knife and try-square. (3) By superposition, locate 
and mark the second side. (4) Square these lines across 



66 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

the edges of the piece a distance equal to the approximate 
depth of the dado. (5) Set the gage for the required 
depth and gage between the knife lines on the two edges. 
(6) Saw just far enough inside the knife lines that the 
sides of the dado may be finished to the lines with the 
chisel. Saw down just to the gage lines, watching both 
edges that the kerfs be not made too deep. (7) Chisel 
out the waste until the bottom of the dado is smooth and 
true. Test the bottom as shown in Fig. 118. Two 




Fig. 119. Cross-lap Joint 

brads are driven into a block having a straight edge 
until they project a distance equal to the proposed depth 
of the dado. (8) Pare the sides of the dado to the knife 
lines. These sides might be finished in another way, by 
setting a wide chisel in the knife line and tapping it 
gently with a mallet. If care is taken the successive 
settings of the chisel need not show. 

Where the dado is to be cut on a piece narrow enough 
that the saw may be made to follow the fine accurately, it 
is considered better practice to saw accurately to the line. 

39. Cross-lap Joint. — Usually, stock for the two 
members of the cross-lap joint can be best planed to 
width and thickness in one piece. Place two sets of 
face marks on the piece, so that there shall be one set of 



SIMPLE JOINERY 



67 




Fig. 120. Testing for Like 
Dimensions 



marks on each member after they are separated. 
Fig. 119. 

40. Directions for Cross-lap Joint. — (1) Square the 
two ends, measure from each of these the desired length 

of each member, square 
knife lines around, saw 
apart, finishing the ends 
square to the lines. (2) 
Measure from one end of 
each member the required 
distance to the nearer 
edge of the joint. Since the corresponding faces of the 
two members must be on the same side of the piece 
when the parts are put together, it will be necessary 
to lay off the groove of one member on the face 

and of the other 

m.ember on the side 
opposite the face. 
If the joints are to 
be in the middle of 
each member but one 
measurement need be 
made. (3) Square 
sharp knife lines 
across at these 
points. (4) By super- 
position, locate and 
knife the second edge of each joint. (5) If the joints are 
to be in the middle of each member, before proceeding 
farther, test to see that the lines have been laid out pro- 
perly. If the members are placed side by side and the 




Fig. 12 L Testing Bottom of Joint' 



68 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

ends evened as in laying out in (2) above, the lines will of 
necessity correspond. Turn one of the members end for 
end and even the two ends ; the lines ought still to corres- 
pond. If they do not, points marked midway between 
the corresponding lines will give the correct position for 
the new lines, Fig. 120. (6) Extend the knife hnes across 
the two adjoining surfaces of each member. (7) Set the 




Fig. 122. Effect of Too Tight a Fit 

gage for the required depth and gage between the knife 
lines on the surfaces. Though the groove on one member 
is laid out on the side opposite the face, do not make the 
mistake of holding the head of the gage against other 
than the face. (8) Saw accurately, Section 13, Fig. 32, 
to the knife lines and to a depth indicated by the gage 
Hnes. (9) Chisel out the waste stock. Section 3S. (10) 
Test as shown in Fig. 121. A well-made cross-lap joint 
is one in which the members can be put together with 
the pressure of the hands and which will not fall apart 
of their own weight. Fig. 122 shows the results of 
"forcing a fit.'' 



CHAPTER IX 
Wood Finishing 

41. Materials for Wood Finishing. — Finishes are 
applied to woods for two reasons, first, that the wood 
may be protected and, second,, that its appearance may 
be bettered. 

Of the materials used the following are the chief ones : 
Stain, filler, wax, varnishes, oil, and paint. These may 
be used singly or in combinations one with another or 
others in finishing. 

Stains are used to give color to close grained woods. 
They are also used upon coarse grained woods before the 
application of a relatively darker filler. 

Varnishes are of two kinds : spirit or alcohol and copal 
or oil varnish. The former, because of its rapid drying 
qualities is used mostly in manual training schools where 
dust abounds and no special finishing room free of dust 
and of even temperature is available. 

Shellac or spirit varnish is a solution of lac and alcohol. 
Lac is soluble in both grain and wood alcohol but grain 
alcohol is preferable. Beds of crude lac are found in 
parts of Africa and South America where the lac has been 
left by the decay of leaves and twigs which it at one time 
encrusted. Crude lac is deposited upon leaves and twigs 
of certain of the lac-bearing trees by countless numbers 
of insects which draw out the sap. 

Stick-lac is crude lac which has been purified some- 

69 



70 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



what of the bodies and eggs of the insects and rolled into 
stick forms. When crushed and washed it is known as 
seed-lac. When fully purified, which is done by melting 
and straining, it is spread out and is known as shellac. 

White shellac is obtained by bleaching. Orange 
shellac is unbleached. Pure white shellac is used where 
the more yellow shellac would discolor. Orange shellac 
is stronger than white and will last 
longer but is harder to apply be- 
cause it sets more rapidly. 

Shellac varnish sets quickly, 
dries hard, but softens under 
moisture. Unlike oil varnish, it 
does not *' level up" and must, 
therefore, be brushed on quickly, 
using long, even strokes. No spots 
must be omitted for they cannot 
be "touched up." 

Most of the above finishes are 
applied with a brush. The best brushes are made 
from bristles of the wild boar of Russia and China 
and are expensive. They should be well cared for, 
being cleaned when not in constant use. Brushes which 
have been used in filler, or paint, or oil varnish are 
cleansed with turpentine, or kerosene, or gasoline, or 
benzine. Brushes which have been used in shellac are 
cleansed with alcohol. Brushes which are used from 
day to day should be kept suspended over night in 
the liquid being used, so that their bristles shall not 
touch the bottom of the bucket, otherwise they lose 
their shape. Fig. 123. 




Fig. 123. Brush Holder 



WOOD FINISHING 



71 




Fig. 124. 



Position of Hand on 
Brush 



Alcohol evaporates rapidly; shellac, therefore, should 
be kept in a receptacle which may have a top placed over 
it when not in use. White shellac is used for finishing 
light colored woods. It 
should be kept in a glass 
or stone jar, otherwise the 
metal will cause it to dis- 
color. 

42. General Directions 
for Using Brush.— (1) Hold 
the brush as in Fig. 124. (2) 
Dip the end of the brush in 
the liquid to about one-third 
the length of the bristles. 
(3) Wipe off the surplus Kquid on the edge of the can 
wiping both sides of the brush no more than is necessary 
to keep the Hquid from dripping. A wire stretched 
across the can as in Fig. 125 provides a better wiping 
place for the dripping brush. In 
wiping the brush on the edge of the 
can, some of the Hquid is likely to 
''run" down the outside. (4) Using 
the end of the brush, apply the hquid 
near one end of the surface to be 
covered. (5) ''Brush" in the direc- 
tion of the grain. (6) Work towards 
and out over the end of the board, leveling the Kquid 
to a smooth film of uniform thinness. The strokes 
should be "feathered," that is, the brush should be 
lowered gradually at the beginning of the sweep and 
raised gradually at the close, otherwise, ugly "laps" 




Fig. 125. Cleaning 
Wire 




72 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

will result. The reason for working out over the ends 
rather than from them will appear with a little thought. 
(7) Now work toward the second end. The arrows, 

Fig. 126, show the general 
directions of the final or 
feathering strokes, 
'^v Edges are usually covered 

Fig. 126. Direction of Feather- ^^.g^ ^^^ adjoining surfaces 
ing Strokes •' ° 

afterward. 

It frequently happens that surplus liquid runs over a 
finished surface, especially when working near the arrises. 
This surplus can be ''picked up " by wiping the brush up- 
on the wire of the bucket until the bristles are quite free 
of liquid, and giving the part afTected a feathering sweep. 

If the object has an internal corner, work from that 
out over the neighboring surfaces. 

Panels and sunk places should be covered first. After- 
ward, the raised places, such as stiles, rails, etc., may be 
attended to. Wherever possible the work should be 
laid fiat so that the Uquid may be flowed on horizontally. 
This is of especial advantage in varnishing. Vertical 
work should always be begun at the top and carried 
downward. 

Tracing consists in working a liquid up to a given line 
but not over it, such as painting the sash of a window. 
Tracing requires a steady hand and some practice. A 
small brush is generally used and the stroke is made as 
nearly continuous as the flow of the liquid will allow. 
Fig. 127. 

43. Simple Finishes for Close-Grained Woods. — It 
is taken for granted that commercially prepared finishes 



WOOD FINISHING 



73 



are to be used; it is hardly profitable for boys to try to 
prepare their own stains and other finishes. 

First Finish: (1) Remove all dust from the sanded 
surfaces. (2) Coat the piece to be finished with thin 
white shellac. (3) Allow this to stand over night; 
then sandpaper Kghtly with No. 00 paper held upon the 
tips of the fingers, Fig. 128. Sand just enough to 
remove the roughness of the shellaced surface. Do not 
use a block for the 
sandpaper; it is 
smoothness and not 
levelness that is re- 
quired. It is too 
late to try to secure 
a level surface. (4) 
Apply a coat of pre- 
pared floor wax. 
These waxes are 
made to dry very 

•ji '-rx, J- Fis- 127. Tracing 

rapidly. Thedirec- *= ° 

tions for their appHcation will be found printed upon the 
can labels. An easy way to remember these directions 
is to note that such waxes are applied and poUshed just 
as are the paste shoe polishes so generally used. (5) Pol- 
ish this wax after it has stood some ten or fifteen minutes, 
using a flannel cloth. (6) After an hour another coat of 
w^ax may be apphed and polished if desired. The more 
coats of wax the better the finish. 

Second Finish: This finish is like the one just de- 
scribed, except that a coat of stain of the desired color 
is applied to the wood just before the thin coat of shellac. 




74 



WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 



Stains are of three kinds: water, oil, and spirit. Each 
has its advantages and its disadvantages. For simple 
manual training pieces, oil stains are recommended. 
Such stains are nothing more than paint thinned to 
proper consistency. Apply them with a brush, and 
immediately wipe the surface clear of the surplus mate- 
rial, using a cloth or piece of cotton waste. Make 
certain that all excess has been removed from corners 




Fig. 128. Sanding a Finish 

as well as surfaces, otherwise a muddied effect will 
result at the uncleaned places. 

44. Simple Finishes for Coarse-grained Woods. — 
The finishing of coarse-grained woods differs from that of 
finishing close-grained woods chiefly in the means 
taken to ^' build up" the open grain of the coarse-grained 
woods to the same level as that of its close grain. This is 
accomplished by means of filler. Paste filler is usually 
made of ground rock crystal mixed with linseed oil, 
Japan drier, and turpentine. It may be either light or 
natural in color, or colored in any one of a number of 
shades. 



WOOD FLXISHIXG 75 

First Finish: (1) Thin the filler with turpentine until 
it makes a thin paste. (2) With a stiff-bristled brush, 
force the filler into the pores of the wood and leave 
the surface covered with a thin coating. (3) Allow this 
to stand until the filler has ''flatted," that is, until the 
''gloss" has disappeared and the filler becomes dull and 
chalkish. The time required for this to take place 
varies. Twenty minutes is not unusual. (4) Rub the 
filler off just as soon as it has flatted — do not let it 
stand longer, for the longer it stands the harder it is to 
remove. Rub across the grain as much as is possible, 
using a wad of excelsior. Finish fine work by going over 
it a second time with a cloth, rubbing with the grain as 
well as across, that the ''high fights" may be clear of 
filler. 

On fine work use a felt pad to rub the filler into the 
pores, and rub off with a cloth only. 

Twenty-four hours should be allowed the filler to 
harden. One filling is suflicient for ordinary work; on 
fine work the above process is sometimes repeated after 
the first filling has hardened. 

The striking contrasts in the grain of wood such as 
oak and chestnut, obtained by the use of colored fillers 
are due to the dark fillers remaining in the open grain 
but being wiped off of the close grain — the "high 
lights." (5) Apply a thin coat of shellac and allow it 
to dry over night. (6) Sand lightly w4th No. 00 paper 
held upon the finger tips. (7) Apply one or two coats 
of wax. 

Second Method: The second method is similar to the 
one just described except that before the filler is applied 



76 WOODWORK FOR BEGINNERS 

a coat of stain of a color desired for the ''highlights", 
the close-grained spots, will be applied and allowed to dry 
over night. If water stain is used this will be sanded 
with No. 00 paper before the filler is apphed. Next, 
the filler coat will be applied, a color of filler being used 
which is relatively darker but of the same shade as that 
of the stain being used. After this a thin coat of shellac 
is applied and the remaining steps taken as in the first 
method. 

45. Painting. — The purpose of paints is to preserve 
the wood by covering it with an opaque material. 
Paints are usually composed of white lead and zinc oxide 
and coloring materials mixed or thinned with raw or 
boiled linseed oil. Turpentine is also used for thinning 
and as a drying agent. 

Paint must be well brushed out so that a thin film may 
result. 

In painting (1) Cover the knots with shellac, or the 
oil of the paint will be absorbed through two or three 
coats and a discoloration result. (2) Put on a prime 
coat. This coat should be mixed as thin as it can be and 
still not ''run" when applied to vertical surfaces. (3) 
Fill the nail holes with putty. Sand Hghtly if a smooth 
finish is desired. (4) Apply two or three coats of paint 
thin enough to flow freely but thick enough to cover well 
and not ''run." 

The second coat is given a little more than the usual 
amount of turpentine that a "flat effect" may prepare 
the way for the final gloss coat. If the last coat is to be 
dull, turpentine is used in it as well as the second. Oil 
causes gloss, turpentine causes a dull or fiat effect. 



INDEX 

(numbers refer to pages) 



Against the Grain 8 

Arris 7 

Auger-bit 45 

Awls 46 

Back-saw 22 

Bevel. 16 

Bit, Inserting 43 

Block Plane 25 

Boring to Depth 45 

Boring Positions 45 

Boring Through 46 

Brace or Bitstock 43 

Broken View 10 

Brush, Directions for Use 71 

Brushes, Care of 70 

Chamfer Planing 41 

Chiseling 48 

Chisels 47 

Clamps 58 

Compass 18 

Corner 7 

Countersink Bit 47 

Cross-lap Joint 66 

Cross-lap Joint, Directions for 67 

Cross-section 10 

Curved Edges 59 

Dado Joint 65 

Dividers 18 

Drafting Board 11 

Drafting Tools 11 

Drill Bit 46 

Duplicate Parts 64 



Edge Planing 33 

Edge Tests 34 

Edges, Hidden 10 

Edges, Visible 10 

End 7 

End Planing 37 

Face 7 

Face Marks 28 

Face Side, Face Edge 27 

Faces, Placing of 29 

Feathering Strokes of Brush . . 72 

Feathering Strokes of Plane. . . 34 

Filler 74 

Finishes for Close-grained 

Woods 72 

Finishes for Coarse-grained 

Woods 74 

Framing Square 16 

Gaging Thickness 40 

Gaging Width 36 

Gimlet Bit 46 

Glue 58 

Gouge 50 

Grain 7 

Hammer 54 

Jack Plane 24 

Joinery, General Directions . . 61 
Jointer Plane 24 

Knife, Use of 13, 63 

Lac 69 



77 



78 



INDEX 



Length 7 

Lining across Grain 15 

Lines, Center 10 

Lines, Construction 10 

Lines, Dimension 10 

Lines, Dotted 10 

Lines, Extension 10 

Lines, Projection 10 

Lumber Terms 7 

Mallet 47 

Marking Gage 17 

Marking to Width with 

Straight-edge 14 

Measuring Length 38 

Mechanical Drawing Gage .... 9 

Mechanical Drawing Views ... 9 

Mill-marks 30 

Naihng 55 

Nails 55 

Nailset 54 



Oil 



.69, 76 



Painting 76 

Pencil, Use of . . .13, 63 

Pictorial Dra\^ing 8 

Plane Adjustments 25 

Plane Parts 25 

Planes 24 

Putty 76 



Rule 



13 



Sandpaper 53 

Sandpapering 53 

Sandpapering P'inishes. 73, 75, 76 

Sawing 20 

Sawing Parallel to Line 23 

Sawing to Length 38 

Sawing to Line 22 

Saws 19 

Saws, Their Cutting Action . 19 

Scale Drawing 11 



Screwdriver 57 

Screwdriver Bit 47 

Screw Gage 57 

Screws 57 

Screws, Fastening with 57 

Setting Marking Gage 17 

Shellac 69, 73, 75, 76 

Sighting a Plane-iron 27 

Smooth Plane 24 

Spokeshave 59 

Squaring-up Mill-planed 

Stock 33, 39 

Squaring-up Rough Stock. ... 40 
Squaring-up Stock, General 

Discussion 31 

Stains 69,73, 74, 76 

Stock Bill 11 

Superposition 61 

Surface Truing 40 

Surfacing Machine 30 

Test for Uniformity of Width . 15 
Testing Chisels and Plane- 
irons for Sharpness 52 

Testing Edge for Squareness . . 15 
Testing End for Squareness . . 15 

Testing True Surface 39 

Thickness 7 

Thumb-gaging to Width 13 

Tracing 72 

Triangles 11 

Try-square 14 

T-square 11 

Varnishes 69 

Wax 69,73,75 

Whetting Chisels and Plane- 
irons 50 

Width 7 

Wire Gage 55 

Withdrawing Nails 56 

Wood Finishing ]\Iaterials. ... 69 
Working Drawings 8 



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